Raw foodism (or rawism) is a lifestyle promoting the consumption of uncooked Cooking is the process of preparing food by applying heat. Cooks select and combine ingredients using a wide range of tools and methods. In the process, the flavor, texture, appearance, and chemical properties of the ingredients can change. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, reflecting unique environmental, economic,, unprocessed Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food processing industry. Food processing typically takes clean, harvested crops or slaughtered and butchered animal products and uses these to, and often organic foods Organic foods are made in a way that limits or excludes the use of synthetic materials during production. For the vast majority of human history, agriculture can be described as organic; only during the 20th century was a large supply of new synthetic chemicals introduced to the food supply. This more recent style of production is referred to as & as a large percentage of the diet In nutrition, diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. Dietary habits are the habitual decisions an individual or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat. With the word diet, it is often implied the use of specific intake of nutrition for health or weight-management reasons . Although humans are omnivores, each culture.

Raw foodists typically believe that the greater the percentage of raw food in the diet, the greater the health benefits. Raw foodism or a raw diet is usually equated with raw veganism Raw veganism is a diet which combines veganism and raw foodism. It excludes all food of animal origin, and all food cooked above 48 degrees Celsius . A raw vegan diet includes raw vegetables and fruits, nuts and nut pastes, grain and legume sprouts, seeds, plant oils, sea vegetables, herbs, and fresh juices. There are many different versions of in which only raw plant foods are eaten.^[1] Depending on the type of lifestyle and results desired, raw food diets may include a selection of raw fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds (including sprouted whole grains Whole grains are cereal grains that contain germ, endosperm, and bran, in contrast to refined grains, which retain only the endosperm. Wholegrains can generally be sprouted while refined grains generally will not sprout. Wholemeal products are made from wholegrain flour such as gaba rice Rice is the seed of a monocot plant Oryza sativa. As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East, South, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and the West Indies. It is the grain with the second highest worldwide production, after maize), eggs, fish (such as sashimi Sashimi is a Japanese delicacy. It primarily consists of very fresh raw seafood, sliced into thin pieces and served with only a dipping sauce (soy sauce with wasabi paste or other condiments such as grated fresh ginger, or ponzu), depending on the fish, and simple garnishes such as shiso and shredded daikon radish. Dimensions vary depending on the), meat (such as carpaccio Carpaccio is a dish of raw meat or fish (such as beef, veal, venison, salmon or tuna) generally thinly sliced or pounded thin and served as an appetizer), and nonpasteurized Pasteurization is a process of heating a food, usually liquid, to a specific temperature for a definite length of time, and then cooling it immediately. This process slows microbial growth in food. The process was named after its creator, French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur. The first pasteurization test was completed by Louis Pasteur/nonhomogenized Homogenization is intensive mixing of mutually insoluble phases to obtain a suspension or emulsion dairy products (such as raw milk Raw milk is milk that has not been pasteurized or homogenized, raw milk cheese, and raw milk yogurt).

Diets

Raw foodism can include any diet of primarily unheated food, or food warmed to a temperature less than 40 °C Celsius is a temperature scale that is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before his death. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval (a difference between two temperatures (104 °F Fahrenheit is the temperature scale proposed in 1724 by, and named after, the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit . Today, the temperature scale has been replaced by the Celsius scale in most countries. It is still in use in few nations, such as United States and Belize) to 46 °C Celsius is a temperature scale that is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before his death. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval (a difference between two temperatures (115 °F Fahrenheit is the temperature scale proposed in 1724 by, and named after, the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit . Today, the temperature scale has been replaced by the Celsius scale in most countries. It is still in use in few nations, such as United States and Belize). The most popular raw food diet is a raw vegan diet, but other forms may include animal products and/or meat. Raw foodists can be divided between those that advocate raw veganism Raw veganism is a diet which combines veganism and raw foodism. It excludes all food of animal origin, and all food cooked above 48 degrees Celsius . A raw vegan diet includes raw vegetables and fruits, nuts and nut pastes, grain and legume sprouts, seeds, plant oils, sea vegetables, herbs, and fresh juices. There are many different versions of or vegetarianism Vegetarianism is the practice of following a plant-based diet including fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, nuts, and seeds, with or without dairy products and eggs. A vegetarian does not eat meat, including red meat, game, poultry, fish, crustacea, and shellfish, and may also abstain from by-products of animal slaughter such as animal-derived, those that advocate a raw omnivorous Omnivores are species that eat both plants and animals as their primary food source. They are opportunistic, general feeders not specifically adapted to eat and digest either meat or plant material primarily. Pigs are one well-known example of an omnivore. Crows are another example of an omnivore that many people see every day. Humans are regarded diet, and those that advocate a 100% raw animal foods diet.

Raw veganism

A raw vegan diet consists of unprocessed, raw plant foods that have not been heated above 46 °C Celsius is a temperature scale that is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before his death. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval (a difference between two temperatures (115 °F Fahrenheit is the temperature scale proposed in 1724 by, and named after, the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit . Today, the temperature scale has been replaced by the Celsius scale in most countries. It is still in use in few nations, such as United States and Belize). Raw vegans believe that foods cooked above this temperature have lost much of their nutritional value and are less healthy or even harmful to the body. Typical foods include fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds and sprouted grains and legumes.

Some raw vegans can be subdivided into fruitarians Fruitarianism is the practice endorsed by people called fruitarians or fructarians of following a diet that comprises fruits, nuts and seeds, without animal products, vegetables and grains. Fruitarianism is a subset of veganism, juicearians, or sproutarians.^[2] Fruitarians eat primarily or exclusively fruits and nuts. Juicearians process their raw plant foods into juice. Sproutarians adhere to a diet consisting mainly of sprouted seeds Many sprouts are edible, nutritious and beneficial to human health, while others are toxic, such as those of kidney beans. Public attention, however, has been drawn to the safety of commercial sprouts. There have been outbreaks of Escherichia coli infection fromalfalfa sprouts grown from contaminated seeds or unhygienic production with high.^[3]

Personal claims have been made following a raw vegan diet, including weight loss, more energy, clear skin, improved insulin tolerance.^[4][5]

Raw vegetarianism

Raw vegetarianism is a diet that excludes meat, (including game and slaughter byproducts like gelatin), fish (including shellfish and other sea animals) and poultry, but allows dairy and eggs. Common foods include fruit, vegetables, sprouts, nuts, seeds, grains, legumes, dairy, eggs and honey. There are several variants of this diet.^[6]

Raw animal food diets

Included in raw animal food diets are any food that can be eaten raw, such as uncooked, unprocessed meats/offal/eggs, raw dairy, and aged, raw animal foods such as century eggs Century egg, also known as preserved egg, hundred-year egg, thousand-year egg, and thousand-year-old egg, is a Chinese cuisine ingredient made by preserving duck, chicken or quail eggs in a mixture of clay, ash, salt, lime, and rice hulls for several weeks to several months, depending on the method of processing. Through the process, the yolk, fermented Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. A more restricted definition of fermentation is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol. The science of fermentation is known as zymology meat/fish/shellfish/kefir Kefir , purportedly from either the Turkish "keyif" (joy/pleasure) or "köpür" ((milk) froth, foam), is a fermented milk drink that originated with shepherds of the Caucasus region, who discovered that fresh milk carried in leather pouches would occasionally ferment into an effervescent beverage. It is prepared by inoculating, as well as vegetables/fruits/nuts/sprouts, but generally not raw grains, raw beans, raw soy, etc., because of digestibility In mammals, food enters the mouth, being chewed by teeth, with chemical processing beginning with chemicals in the saliva from the salivary glands. Then it travels down the oesophagus into the stomach, where hydrocloric acid kills most contaminating microorganisms and begins mechanical break down of some food , and chemical alteration of some. The and toxicity Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ (organotoxicity), such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). By extension, the word may be issues, and also because paleolists The modern dietary regimen known as the Paleolithic diet , also popularly referred to as the caveman diet, Stone Age diet and hunter-gatherer diet, is a nutritional plan based on the presumed ancient diet of wild plants and animals that various human species habitually consumed during the Paleolithic—a period of about 2.5 million years duration tend to reject Neolithic The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BCE in the Middle East that is traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age. The Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic period, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the " or domesticated Domestication or taming is the process whereby a population of animals or plants, through a process of selection, becomes accustomed to human provision and control. A defining characteristic of domestication is artificial selection by humans. Some species such as the Asian Elephant, numerous members of which have for many centuries been used as foods. Raw foods included on such diets have not been heated at temperatures above 104 °F (40 °C). "Raw animal foodists" believe that foods cooked above this temperature have lost much of their nutritional value and are harmful to the body.^[7] Smoked meats are frowned upon by many raw-omnivores.^[8] Some make a distinction between hot-smoked and cold-smoked foods.

Those who eat a raw omnivorous diet usually choose to obtain their meats from free-range and grass-fed sources. This greatly diminishes the risk of harmful bacteria. A study by Cornell University has determined that grass-fed animals have far fewer E. coli Escherichia coli is a Gram negative rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some, such as serotype O157:H7, can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are occasionally responsible for product recalls. The harmless strains are part of the (about 1/300th) than their grain fed counterparts.^[9] Also in the same study, the amount of E. coli they do have is much less likely to survive our first line defense against infection, gastric acid Gastric acid is a secretion produced in the stomach. It is one of the main solutions secreted, together with several enzymes and intrinsic factors. Chemically it is an acid solution with a pH of 1 to 2 in the stomach lumen, consisting mainly of hydrochloric acid (around 0.5%, or 5000 parts per million), and large quantities of potassium chloride (. Grass-fed meat also contains more nutrients, such as vitamins A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. In other words, an organic chemical compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and the particular organism. For, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids n−3 fatty acids are a family of unsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon–carbon double bond in the n−3 position; that is, the third bond from the methyl end of the fatty acid, than grain-finished meat.^{[9][10][11][12]} Other studies show that E. coli O157:H7, Campylobacter, Salmonella, and other pathogens have been repeatedly isolated from both grass-fed and grain-fed livestock, and there are conflicting results regarding whether the levels of pathogens are higher, lower, or the same when animals are fed grass- or grain-based diets.^[13]

Examples of raw animal food diets include the Primal Diet,^[14][15][16] Anopsology Anopsology is a raw food diet created by Guy-Claude Burger. It is also called instinctive eating or anosology. It should not be confused with anopsy, a term for blindness (otherwise known as "Instinctive Eating" or "Instincto"), and the Raw, Paleolithic diet The modern dietary regimen known as the Paleolithic diet , also popularly referred to as the caveman diet, Stone Age diet and hunter-gatherer diet, is a nutritional plan based on the presumed ancient diet of wild plants and animals that various human species habitually consumed during the Paleolithic—a period of about 2.5 million years duration^[17][18] ("otherwise known as the "Raw Meat Diet").^[19]

The Primal Diet,^[15][16] is a diet consisting of fatty meats, organ meats, dairy, honey, minimal fruit and vegetable juices and coconut cream, all raw. The founder of the Primal Diet is Aajonus Vonderplanitz Aajonus Vonderplanitz is an American nutritional consultant, speaker, author, and raw food diet advocate residing in Malibu, California. As of 2008[update], Aajonus has been eating an all-raw diet for 38 years. He developed the Primal Diet, which is a diet consisting of fatty meats, organ meats, dairy, honey, minimal fruit and vegetable juices and. Vonderplanitz has estimated that there are 20,000 followers of his raw-meat-heavy Primal Diet in North America, alone.^[20] Books by Vonderplanitz include "The Recipe for Living Without Disease"^[21] and "We Want To Live".^[22]

There are also those who follow the "Raw Meat Diet", otherwise known as the "Raw, Paleolithic Diet",^[18][23] which is a raw version of the (cooked) Paleolithic Diet, incorporating large amounts of raw animal foods such as raw meats/organ-meats, raw seafood, raw eggs, and some raw plant-foods, but usually avoiding non-Paleo foods such as raw dairy, grains and legumes.^[18][24]

A number of traditional aboriginal diets consisted of large quantities of raw meats, organ meats, and berries, including the traditional diet of the Nenet The Nenets people are an indigenous people in Russia. According to the latest census in 2002, there are 41,302 Nenets in the Russian Federation, most of them living in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug and Nenets Autonomous Okrug. They speak either the Tundra or Forest varieties of Nenets tribe of Siberia and the Inuit The Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Canada, Denmark, Russia and the United States. The Inuit language is grouped under Eskimo-Aleut languages. An Inuk is an Inuit man or person people.^[25][26][27]

Food preparation

Many foods in raw food diets are simple to prepare, such as fruits, salads, meat, and dairy. Other foods can require considerable advanced planning to prepare for eating. Rice and some other grains, for example, require sprouting Sprouting is the practice of soaking, draining and then rinsing seeds at regular intervals until they germinate, or sprout. This can be a semi-automated or fully automated process when done on a large scale for commercial use or overnight soaking to become digestible. Many raw foodists believe it is best to soak nuts and seeds before eating them, to activate their enzymes Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their, and deactivate enzyme inhibitors.^[28] The amount of soak time varies for all nuts and seeds.

According to some cookbook authors, preparation of gourmet raw food recipes usually calls for a blender A blender, or liquidiser in British English, is a kitchen appliance used to mix ingredients or puree food. Blenders are also used to prepare emulsions, such as mayonnaise, and cream soups. Blenders are to be distinguished from lower-speed hand-powered or electric mixers that are used for mixing applications. The term typically refers to a, food processor A food processor is a kitchen appliance used to facilitate various repetitive tasks in the process of preparation of food. Today, the term almost always refers to an electric-motor-driven appliance, although there are some manual devices also referred to as "food processors", juicer A juicer is a tool for extracting juice from fruits, vegetables, or wheatgrass. This is known as juicing, and dehydrator A food dehydrator is an appliance that uses warm air to reduce the water content of foods. This is usually done to preserve foods that do not normally store well. Dried fruit, one of the most commonly dehydrated foods, is popular in breakfast cereals.^[29] Depending on the recipe, some food (such as crackers, breads and cookies) may need to be dehydrated. These processes, which produce foods with the taste and texture of cooked food, are lengthy. Some raw foodists dispense with these recipes, feeling that there is no need to emulate the other nonraw diets or increase sales of kitchen appliances.

Freezing In physical science, freezing or solidification is the process in which a liquid turns into a solid when cold enough. The freezing point is the temperature at which this happens. Melting, the process of turning a solid to a liquid, is almost the exact opposite of freezing. All known liquids undergo freezing when the temperature is lowered enough, food is acceptable, even though freezing lowers enzyme activity. This view is only held by some raw-foodists, with many raw-foodists actually viewing freezing as harmful,^[30][31] though not as unhealthy as cooking.

Several raw food preparation books have been published including Everyday Raw and Entertaining in the Raw by Matthew Kenney (Gibbs Smith 2009), "Everyday Raw Desserts" by Matthew Kenney (Gibbs Smith 2010), Raw: The Uncook Book: New Vegetarian Food for Life by Juliano Brotman and Erika Lenkert (Regan Books, 1999), Raw by Charlie Trotter, Roxanne Klein, Jason Smith, and Tim Turner (Ten Speed Press, 2003), Raw Food/Real World: 100 Recipes to Get the Glow by Matthew Kenney and Sarma Melngailis (William Morrow, 2005), RAWvolution: Gourmet Living Cuisine by Matt Amsden (William Morrow, 2006).

Avoiding poisoning

As the consumption of raw foods gains popularity, some potentially unsafe foods have re-entered the diets of humans. However, the following list includes many foods which are rarely promoted by the educated proponents^{[citation needed]} of raw foodism, especially beans or legumes.

• Buckwheat greens are toxic when raw, particularly if juiced or eaten in large quantities by fair-skinned individuals. The chemical component fagopyrin is known to cause severe photosensitivity and other dermatological complaints.^[32]
• Kidney beans, including sprouts, are toxic when raw, due to the chemical phytohaemagglutinin.^[33]
• Alfalfa sprouts contain the toxin canavanine.^[34]
• Some types of raw cassava or cassava flour can be toxic.
• Raw eggs contain avidin, a vitamin B₇ or biotin inhibitor, which can cause “egg white injury”. As many as 24 egg whites would have to be eaten to inactivate biotin. Avidin is denatured by heat.^[35][36]
• Raw seeds of the genus Lathyrus (peas), can cause lathyrism.
• Raw Brassica species can contain glucosinolate.
• Several seeds contain poison, such as apricot kernels, which contain the toxin amygdalin. See Seed#Poison_and_food_safety
• Raw parsnips contain furanocoumarin.
• Raw foods, particularly raw meat, may contain harmful bacteria and their associated bacterial toxins.^[37][38] Other parasites and viruses may also be present, such as Toxoplasma,^[39] Trichinella,^[40] or rotavirus,^[41] which may cause serious foodborne illnesses.
• Raw milk may contain Mycobacterium bovis (which can cause non-pulmonary tuberculosis)^{[citation needed]} and Brucella bacteria that cause undulant fever and spontaneous abortion.
• Raw sweet potato, cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, rutabaga, canola oil, cassava, pinenuts, mustard, millet, soybeans and peanuts contain small amounts of goitrogens which can interfere with iodine metabolism and worsen hypothyroidism.^[42]

History

Aibert (1060–1140) ate uncooked foods as part of his religious asceticism.

Raw foods gained prominence in the West throughout the 1900s, as proponents, such as Ann Wigmore and Herbert Shelton, stated that a diet of raw fruits and vegetables is the ideal diet for humans.^[43] Artturi Virtanen (1895–1973), showed that enzymes in uncooked foods are released in the mouth when vegetables are chewed.^[44] Raw foodists extrapolate from such research the supposition that these enzymes interact with other substances, notably the enzymes produced by the body itself, to aid in the digestion process. Promoters of raw foods, such as the Weston-Price Foundation, support the idea that, since no digestive juices are secreted in the upper stomach, the enzymes in the raw foods last for about 30 minutes in the upper stomach before being destroyed in the lower stomach, thus giving them enough time to break down the raw foods, to some extent.^[45]

Leslie Kenton’s book, Raw Energy-Eat Your Way to Radiant Health, in 1984 popularized food such as sprouts, seeds, and fresh vegetable juices.^[46] The book brought together research into raw foodism and its support of health, citing examples such as the sprouted seed enriched diets of the long lived Hunza people, as well as Max Gerson's claim of a raw juice-based cancer cure. The book advocates a diet of 75% raw food to prevent degenerative diseases, slow the effects of aging, provide enhanced energy, and boost emotional balance.

Beliefs

Common beliefs held by raw foodists:

• Raw foodist believe that digestive enzymes (such as amylases, proteases, and lipases) aid digestion.^[47] Heating food above 104-120 degrees Fahrenheit degrades or destroys these enzymes in food.^[48] However, food enzymes are proteins that are mostly denatured in the stomach, and 90% of nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine, after these enzymes have been destroyed.^[49]
• Raw foods include bacteria and other micro-organisms that affect the immune system and digestion by populating the digestive tract with beneficial gut flora. These are generally killed by cooking. In addition, many raw-foodists, particularly primal-dieters, are believers in the hygiene hypothesis, a concept which focuses on the health benefits of exposure to parasites and harmful bacteria, which builds natural resistance.
• Raw foods have higher nutrient values than foods which have been cooked.^{[citation needed]} In addition, raw foodists believe processed food and convenience food often contain excitotoxins (flavor enhancers) which can cause excitotoxicity. Foods with added chemicals, preservatives, additives, colouring agents/dyes of any kind are frowned upon by raw-foodists.
• Raw fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds are the ideal food for human consumption, and the basis of a raw food lifestyle. Consume no irritants or stimulants like coffee, alcohol, and tobacco. Avoid heated fats and proteins like fried oils and roasted nuts, as they are carcinogenic. Completely avoid the harmful animal proteins meat, dairy and eggs. A raw diet will set you on a sustainable path of steady weight, energy, and health. Though the other elements of the raw food lifestyle all play an important part, diet is undoubtedly the first building block.^[50]
• Wild foods (particularly edible wild plants) followed by organic whole foods are more nutritious than conventionally domesticated foods or industrially produced foods.^[51]
• Cooked foods contain harmful toxins, which cause chronic disease and other problems,^[52][53] Heating oils and fats can produce trace amounts of trans fats.^[54] (Note that this is 100-150 degrees hotter than normal frying temperatures.) Heating sugars with proteins or fats can produce advanced glycation end products ("glycotoxins", see also Maillard reaction).^[55]
• Raw foods such as fruits and vegetables are high in antioxidants and raw-foodists believe they can help to stifle signs of aging.^[56]

Raw food movement

Early proponents include St. Louis Estes, Johnny Lovewisdom, Ann Wigmore and Viktoras Kulvinskas (co-founders of the Hippocrates Health Institute), Arnold Ehret (author and advocate of fasting), Aris Latham (of Sunfired Foods, Inc., known as the godfather of raw food), Arshavir Ter Hovannessian^[57] and Norman W. Walker (who advocated the consumption of vegetable juices).

Notable contemporary proponents include several chefs, published authors and lecturers, such as Matthew Kenney, Tonya Zavasta, Alissa Cohen, Aris Latham, Aajonus Vonderplanitz.^[16]

Celebrities following raw-animal-food diets include Mel Gibson (who follows the "Tiger Diet").^[58] Woody Harrelson has been said to be a raw foodist. Carol Alt (Model) is a raw foodist who includes raw animal products in her diet, she has also written several books on her version of the diet/lifesyle.

Interest in the "Raw Foods Movement" continues to grow today^[59] and is especially prevalent in the UK,^{[19][not in citation given (See discussion.)]} Germany,^[60] Australia and the western United States,^[61] like California.^[62] Restaurants catering to a raw food diet have opened in large cities,^[63] and numerous all-raw cookbooks have been published.^[64]

Supercharge Me! 30 Days Raw is a feature-length documentary film about the raw foods diet, made by Jenna Norwood, a former public relations consultant turned independent filmmaker, health educator and raw food chef.^[65] In the film, inspired by Morgan Spurlock's Super Size Me, Jenna ate only raw foods for thirty days, to document the effect it would have on her health.

Research

To date, scientific literature describing health and nutrition aspects of raw foods or living foods diets is limited and most studies focus on vegetarian diets, most of which excluded all animal products and derived the majority of calories from uncooked plant matter.^[66] Certain studies have indicated detrimental health effects stemming from raw vegetarian and raw omnivorous diets.^[67][68][69] A 2005 study has shown that a raw vegetarian diet is associated with a lower bone density.^[70] One study of raw omnivorous diets shows amenorrhea and underweightness in women.^[71] Another one indicates an increased risk of dental erosion with a raw food diet.^[72]

Other medical studies on raw food diets have shown some positive and negative health outcomes.^[67] According to one medical trial, "long-term consumption of a 70% raw-plant-food diet is associated with favorable serum LDL cholesterol and triglycerides but also with elevated plasma homocysteine and low serum HDL cholesterol" as well as vitamin B₁₂ deficiency.^[73] Another study from Germany found that a "long-term strict raw food diet is associated with favourable plasma beta-carotene and low plasma lycopene concentrations".^[74] A study mentioned benefits of a raw vegan diet for lowering obesity and hypertension^[75] A study has also shown reduced fibromyalgia symptoms for those on a raw vegan diet^[76] as well as reduced symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis, according to another study.^[77]

German research in 2003 showed significant benefits in reducing breast cancer risk when large amounts of raw vegetable matter are included in the diet. The authors attribute some of this effect to heat-labile phytonutrients.^[78]

One study comparing pasteurized and unpasteurized breast milk, showed that pasteurizing breast milk for hospital use and milk banks is unnecessary.^[79] Another study showed a link between consumption of unpasteurized milk and a lowered prevalence of allergies.^[80]

Analysis of The China Study, an international study of epidemiology and nutrition in developing China suggested that a move away from raw unprocessed food in our diet may increase the incidences of common cancers and diseases of affluence, such as diabetes, obesity, heart disorders and strokes.^{[citation needed]} The focus of the project was to evaluate a vegetarian diet with a nonvegetarian diet, and not to evaluate the benefits of a raw food diet.

Potential harmful effects of cooked foods

Raw food dieters claim that cooking food produces harmful chemical toxins. Some of these concerns are accepted by science but some are speculative. Registered dietician, Karen Schroeder says, "Neither the American Cancer Society (ACS) nor the National Cancer Institute (NCI) goes so far as to recommend a raw food diet to reduce the risk of cancer from these chemicals. Instead, they stress that following a healthful diet—one rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, both raw and cooked—is still the best known way to reduce cancer risk."^[81]

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat at high temperatures creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.^[82] While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212 °F (100 °C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.^[83]

Microwaving at high temperatures has been shown to significantly reduce the anti-infective factors in human milk.^[84][85] Microwaving has also been shown to cause the greatest decrease in all studied antioxidants in broccoli, compared to other cooking methods.^[86] Microwaving has been shown to reduce vitamin B₁₂ levels in beef, pork and milk by 30-40%.^[87]

Nitrosamines, formed by cooking at high temperatures and preserving in salt and smoking, have been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer and stomach-cancer.^[88][89]

Cooking with added sugar or cooking foods that contain sugar (see Maillard reaction) may create advanced glycation end products, otherwise known as AGEs. AGEs are created during the breakdown of molecules that consist of a protein and a sugar molecule. This reaction occurs both within the body and external to the body. These compounds are absorbed by the body during digestion with about 30% efficiency.^{[citation needed]} Many cells in the body (for example endothelial cells, smooth muscle or cells of the immune system) from tissue such as lung, liver, kidney or peripheral blood bear the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) that, when binding AGEs, contributes to age and diabetes-related chronic inflammatory diseases,^[90][91] such as atherosclerosis, renal failure,^[92][93][94] arthritis,^[95] myocardial infarction,^[96] macular degeneration,^[97] cardiovascular disease,^[98] nephropathy,^[99] retinopathy,^[100] or neuropathy.^[101] Excretion of dietary AGEs is reduced in diabetics and lowering AGE intake may greatly reduce the impact of AGEs in diabetic patients and possibly improve prognosis.^[55]

Acrylamide, a toxin found in roasted/baked/fried/grilled starchy foods, but not in boiled or raw foods, has been linked to endometrial and ovarian, but not breast cancers.^[102] Ingested acrylamide is metabolised to a chemically reactive epoxide, glycidamide.^[103] The HEATOX(Heat Generated Food Toxins) project has published a report on acrylamide.^[104]

Protein digestibility generally improves by heating, soaking, germination and fermentation. However, reduced protein digestibility is primarily associated with excessive heat, as is found in ready-to-eat breakfast cereals.^[105] Frying chickpeas, oven-heating winged beans, or roasting cereals at 200–280 °C (392–536 °F) reduces protein digestibility.^[105]

Another study has shown that meat heated for 10 minutes at 130 °C (266 °F), showed a 1.5% decrease in protein digestibility.^[105] Similar heating of hake meat in the presence of potato starch, soy oil, and salt caused a 6% decrease in amino acid content.^[106][107]

There are various scientific reports, such as one by the Nutrition Society,^[108] which describe in detail the loss of vitamins and minerals caused by cooking.^{[109][110][111]}

Criticism and controversies

Food poisoning

Food poisoning is a health risk for all people eating raw foods, and increased demand for raw foods is associated with greater incidence of foodborne illness,^[112] especially for raw meat, fish, and shellfish.^[113][114] Outbreaks of gastroenteritis among consumers of raw and undercooked animal products (including smoked, pickled or dried animal products^[113]) are well-documented, and include raw meat,^{[113][115][116]} raw organ meat,^[115] raw fish (whether ocean-going or freshwater),^{[113][114][116]} shellfish,^[117] raw milk and products made from raw milk,^{[118][119][120]} and raw eggs.^[121]

Food poisoning attributed to contaminated raw produce has risen tenfold since the 1970s.^[122] Salad, lettuce, juice, melon, sprouts, and berries were most frequently implicated in outbreaks.^[122]

Many raw plant foods have been contaminated by dangerous and even deadly microorganisms,^[123] including jalapeño and serrano peppers,^[123] alfalfa sprouts and other sprouted seeds,^[124][125] green onions,^[126] spinach,^[127] lettuce,^[127] orange juice,^[128] apple juice and other unpasteurized fruit juices.^[129]

Demand for unpasteurized, or raw, milk is growing among consumers concerned about chemicals, hormones and drugs.^[130] Some believe that pasteurization denatures enzymes and proteins, and kills beneficial bacteria.^[131] According to the FDA, health benefits claimed by raw milk advocates do not exist.^[132] "The small quantities of antibodies in milk are not absorbed in the human intestinal tract", says Barbara Ingham, Ph.D., associate professor and extension food scientist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. "There is no scientific evidence that raw milk contains an anti-arthritis factor or that it enhances resistance to other diseases."

It has been claimed by raw dairy advocates that government agencies are heavily biased against raw dairy, providing incomplete facts or erroneous statistics.^[133]

Nutritional deficiencies

Cooking tenderizes meat, softens plant foods, reduces water content, and decreases the proportion of edible material and makes food molecules less available to the body, due to lack of enzymes.^[134] A raw vegan diet is very low in calcium, vitamin D, iron, zinc, protein and calories.^[135] Due to the high absorption of enzymes and lack of processing, the nutrients are more absorb-able to the human body.^{[citation needed]}

According to scientist and author Harold McGee, meat is cooked for four reasons: to make it safe to eat, easier to chew, easier to digest (denatured proteins are more vulnerable to digestive enzymes), and to enhance flavor.^[136]

The bioavailability of some vitamins and antioxidants are increased by cooking.^[137][138] Cooking carrots and tomatoes increases the absorption of some of the antioxidants they contain. Many foods contain antinutrient factors (ANF) that are destroyed by cooking.^{[139][140][141]}

Care is required in planning a raw food diet, especially for children.^[142] Raw foodists believe that with sufficient food energy, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals, variety and density, people of all ages can be successful at eating raw foods. Dr. Joel Fuhrman, author of Disease-Proof your Child, says there may not be enough vitamin B₁₂, enough vitamin D and enough calories for a growing child on a totally raw vegan diet. Fuhrman fed his own four children raw and cooked vegetables, fruits, nuts, grains, beans and occasionally eggs.^[143] However, this nutritionist has made it clear in his books that he advocates 80 percent of our food should be raw, vegetable based, and that more than ten per cent based on animal produce is to increase the risk of disease.

A study surveying people practicing raw food diets of varying intensities found that 30% of the women under age 45 had partial to complete amenorrhoea and that "subjects eating high amounts of raw food (> 90%) were affected more frequently than moderate raw food dieters". The study concluded that since many raw food dieters were underweight and exhibited amenorrhoea "a very strict raw food diet cannot be recommended on a long-term basis".^[144]

Some raw vegans believe that to sustain the diet, daily inclusion of superfoods and/or supplements are necessary, particularly for children and mothers.^[145]

Human evolution

Richard Wrangham, a primate researcher and professor of anthropology, has stated that eating cooked food is most "natural" for the human digestive system, because the human digestive system has evolved to take advantage of the easier processing cooking allows.^[134][146] Wrangham believes that cooking explains the increase in hominid brain sizes, smaller digestive tract, smaller teeth and jaws and decrease in sexual dimorphism that occurred roughly 1.8 million years ago.^[134][146] Wrangham suggests that raw meat and vegetables could not have provided the necessary calories to support the normal hunter–gatherer lifestyle. He states that "no human foragers have been recorded as living without cooking."^[146] However, he does not recommend using the past as a guide for what is healthy today, pointing out that in the modern world, eating too many calories is more of a problem than eating too few, making harder-to-digest raw food potentially more attractive.^[147]

Other anthropologists oppose Wrangham, stating that archeological evidence suggests that cooking fires began in earnest only 250,000–400,000 years ago, when ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint appear across Europe and the middle East. Two million years ago, the only sign of fire is burnt earth with human remains, which other anthropologists consider coincidence rather than evidence of intentional fire.^{[148][149][150]} The mainstream view among anthropologists is that the increase in human brain-size was due to a shift away from the consumption of nuts and berries to the consumption of meat.^[148][151]

See also

• Anopsology
• Cooking
• Fruitarianism
• Green smoothie
• Orthopathy
• Raw foodists
• Rejuvelac
• Sattvic diet
• Taboo foods
• Douglas N. Graham

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